篇一：语言学论文
浅析会话含义理论的实际运用及不足
姜丽
（外国语学院2011级英语本科（1）班33号）
摘要：无论是社会生活中学习中，谈话都不是毫无章法无逻辑可循的简单交谈模式。谈话总有一个目的，一个能传达信息得到对方反应的方式，受一定的条件制约的。在谈话的各个阶段，也可以有各个阶段的谈话目的而人们的交谈之所以不至于成为一连串互不连贯的话语，是因为交际双方都必须遵守一些基本原则，从而使交际活动能顺利进行，也就是Grice提出的合作原则。事实上这个原则在实际运用中也存在自身的不足.
关键词：会话含义理论；合作原则
一、引言：语言的意义寓于社会互动交际中，其表达及使用遵循一定原则及规则。会话研究主要从剖析话语结构和解释话语连贾I生两个方面进行H J。多数会话在形式上都有一定结构特征(如问候、致谢、课堂提问一回答等)，并在语义上表现出明显的连贯性。但是，人们在日常会话中为了礼貌或修辞等需要并不总是使用直接言语而是使用间接言语来表达自己的意图，这使话语呈现字面意义不连贯、但言外之意连贯的特点。
二、会话含义理论
美国哲学家格赖斯( G f ice )于1 9 6 7年， 在哈佛大学的William James讲座上提出了语用学面的一种新理论，即会话含义理论。这一理论指出，谈话是受一定的条件制约的。人们的交谈之所以不至于 成为一连串互不连贯的话语，是因为交际双方都必须遵守一些基本原则，而使交际活动能顺利进行。他把这种共同遵守的原则称为“合作原则”( Coop—erative principle ) 。如果在交际中，说话人的话语在表面上违反了合作原则，那么,他可能是故意这样做的，这时听话人就要根据当时的语境推断出说话人违反合作原则的目的，即了解他违反合作原则的隐含意义。格赖斯把这种在言语交际中使用的隐含意义称作“会话含义”( Conversational Implicature)。
三、合作原则 格莱斯在“Logic and Conversation” (1975)一文中认为人们在谈话中遵守的合作原则包括四个范畴，每个范畴又包括一条准则和一些次准则，格 赖斯的合作原则包含四大准则( maxims ) 即：
（一）量的准则( quantity maxim )：1、所说的话应包含当前交谈的目的所需要的信息。2、所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息。
（二）质的准则( quality maxim )： 1、 不要说自知是虚假的话。2、 不要说缺乏证据的话。
（三）关系准则 ( relation maxim ) ：说话要上下文关联。
方式准则 ( manner maxim ) ：1、 避免晦涩难懂的表达方式。2 、避免歧义。 3 、简练。4 、井井有条。
四、合作原则的实际运用
㈠语用学是专门研究语言的理解和使用的学问。要做到真正理解和恰当使用一门语言，仅仅懂得构成这门语言的发音、词汇和语法是刁：够的，我们还必须懂得这种语言与理解和使用这种语言的人之间存在的各种各样的关系，如词语的字面意义和隐含意义、话语的前提、说话人的意图、听话人的推断等等。因此，语用学要求区分出以下两种意义：说话人使用的词语本身的意义和说话人要通过这些词语意图表达的意义。例如，A说：
(1)A：Y0u are a如l!
B听到这句话之后可能会问A：B：矾at does口知Z mean?但C听到之后却问A：
C：珊lat do you m锄by n加f?显然，B仅仅问A关于‰1这个单词的意义，即说话人使用的词语本身的意义；而C问的却是A说这句话的意图，亦即问他意图通过说人家是‰l来表达一个什么样的真正意义。又如，说英语的人在给同伴拍照时喜欢说的一句话是：
(2)Say C既E s E!显然，说话人并非要求大家只按他所说的字面意义去理解这句话，即用英语说出C me ESE这个英语单词来；他这样说的意图是要大家在照相时咧开嘴巴发的音，好露出微笑来。再如，为配合做学术报告，报告人可能要利用电影或幻灯进行
语用学是研究使用语言和理解语言的学问，像上面这些有趣的例子，正是语
用学的研究对象。我们用英语来同操英语的本族人交往时，知道一点语用学是很有好处的。跨文化交际中有一个语言的文化差异的问题。对我们说来，英语是外语，我们说英语时往往或多或少地带有汉文化的痕迹。这时，我们就要懂得一点语用学，在交往时要处处方便对方理解，避免造成交际上的障碍。例如，不知什么时候开始，我国很多地区流行这样的一个标语：“高高兴兴上班去，平平安安回家来”。这句话最初是对我们天天出车的汽车司机说的，里面隐含着对他们良好的祝愿。
㈡在 L t 常生活中，经常会有父母在跟孩子说话时问：“你喜欢爸爸还是妈妈?”孩子在很小的时候，有的回答“喜欢爸爸”，有的则“喜欢妈妈”。但当 孩子越来越大，他们的回答渐趋一致“爸爸和妈妈我都喜欢”。那么，父母的这种提问是否正确?孩子不同年龄的不同回答是否是说谎呢? 首先，在该语境中，父母的提问不合适，违反了“量的准则”中“所说的话不应超出交际所需的信息量”。其实，父母只要问“你喜欢爸爸和 妈妈吗? ”就够了，但这里父母因为自己的“目的”的提问，使孩子进入两难境地，但孩子们不知道如何回答，还是按照“合作原则”，凭平时父母跟自己的亲近程度作答。其次，在该语境中孩子年龄大些时回答“爸爸妈妈我都喜欢”，虽然违反了“质的准则”，但并非实际意 义的“说谎”，而是他们在面对这个提问时，发现里面有问题，明白提问中父母的“目的”，所以不想因为自己的回 答影响与父亲或母亲的关系，于是故意违反“质的准则”。 ㈢上海曾经颁布过一项“城市道路交通条例”，该“条例”规定，一旦发生道路交通事故，如果是行人违章汽车是正常行驶，即使行人伤亡 ，驾驶员也毫无责任，一切损失都由行人自己承担。假设：甲乙两人在探讨一个问题如果某人正在驾驶一辆汽车急 速而 行 ， 突然发现 右前方有人违章闯到快车道上，而左前方又出现了一条并未违章的名贵小狗。撞狗，肯定要赔很多钱；撞人 ，无责任但毕竟是人命关天。甲问：“这时他是撞人还是撞小狗?” 乙该如何回答? 答案无论是 “撞狗”或“撞人”，都不对，答案是“什么都不撞，立刻刹车”。问题出在哪呢? 就出在甲的提问是不合适的。那么，为什么说这一提问不合适?什么样的提问才是合适的， 说话者如何避免不合适的提问， 听话者如何应对不合适的提问? 首先，这个提问违反了“质的准则”中“不要说自知是虚假的话”。实际上，提问者甲就“交通条例”字面意思给回答者乙设置了一个“陷阱”。其
次，如果回答者乙因为未用“合作原则”分析问题或他根本不知道“合作原则”，所以客观上履行“合作原则”按“陷阱”的要求进行回答，那么答案肯定是错的。如果提问者甲只问“这时候， 驾驶员应该怎么办?那么回答者乙 一定会从实际 情况和经验回答 “立刻刹车” 。
五、会话含义理论中存在的不足
格赖斯会话含义理论旨在说明言语交际中说话人如何能够传递比 其话语真 值条件内容更加丰富的意思。这一理论的提出，对于哲学和语用学研究都具有里程碑式的意义。它试图将人类活动能力纳入形式逻辑的框架，从哲学上讨论推在言语交际中的作用 ，并理清在语境中意义的产生、语用和理解。 这一理论的提出打破了哲学中关于语义真值研究的长久桎梏，为语言学划出了一块新的天地。 作为一新生事物，格赖斯合作原则和会话含义理论具有无比的生命力，但他同时也有自身的不足和不完善。
㈠按蔗性质的不同，这些问题分为微观和宏观两类。1 ．微观问题是在介绍合作原则及其准则过程中出现的问题，包括：忽视合作原则的哲学背景；省略合作原则总则的内 容；混淆“原则”和“准则”这两个概念。这些问题在一定程度上影响了有关介绍的质量，而且容易误导读者。2 ．宏观问题主要就研究特点而言，和西方学术界的同类研究相比，我国有关合作原则的研究存在着理论建构能力弱、缺乏创新意识、研究方法单一等问题。这类问题的存在则制约了研究的深度和广度。
㈡造成上述问题的因素主要有：1 ．没有充分阅读原著。一些作者在介绍合作原则时主要依靠二手资料，或是没有吃透原文便把自己的意思强加进去，这样势必会出现介绍不到位的问题。2 ．缺乏批判性思维。前面提到的理论建构能力差、缺乏创新意识、研究方法单一等问题归根结底是缺乏批判性思维的问题。长期以来形成的不会质疑、不敢挑战权威，只是被动接受的治学态度难以使“创新”落到实处。
为此，如何重视原文阅 读，如何培养批判性思维能力，以及如何有中国特色地接受与发展西方语言学理论是将我国语言学研究推向深入所需解决的问题。合作原则与会话含义在语用学上的重要地位以及它们给会话研究带来的深远影响会让后来的研究者们更努力地去探寻语言的真谛。
六、结语
格耐斯的会话含义理论的实际运用表现在生活的很多方面，他的合作原则 无疑研究语言的本质，很大程度上是为了语言能更好地服务于人们日常生活的学习、交际。我们在学习某一种语言学理论时， 首先需要强调其语用目的， 即： 完善知识结构；提高表达能力；提高理解能力；提高对交际效果的控制能力。
参考文献：
【1】 何自然.语言学与英语学【M】.上海：上海外语教育出版社：1998.
【2】 Grice ，H .P ．Logic and Conversation ．New York ：Academic
Press，1975．
【3】 顾日国．John Searle的言语行为理论：批判与借鉴．国外
语言学，1994(3)．
【4】 艾为珍 ．近十年国内话语分析研究评述 ．沙洋师范高等专科学报，2007 ，(1)．
篇二：语言学毕业选题参考
语言学毕业论文选题参考
1、 普通话异读词审音之我见(按，《普通话异读词审音表》修订18周年)
2、 普通话中轻声词的规范问题
3、 字面意义与词义引申 ||多音字的语义关系考察(如“好”hǎo 与hào，“系”读xì与j
ì)
4、 异形词整理的通用原则与理据性原则(《第一批异形词整理表》读后)
5、 偏义词的结构、语义、语用分析
6、 缩略词语与新词语 || 成语意义的常规与变异
7、 主语残缺与主语简省区分策略
8、 无病的“病句”：语句正误的辩证观
9、 主谓谓语的语用分析
10、 普通话中宾语中心的隐现(如：收费还贷——收费还贷款，发扬艰苦奋斗——发扬
精神)
11、 紧缩复句论||复句关系词语的功能浅析||复句中预设的运用
12、 试论汉语广告用语中的同音呼应现象
13、 汉语中词语色彩的文化考察(词语的褒贬、雅俗与恭谦之关系及文化内涵)
14、 词语运用中的肯定否定不对称现象
15、 否定羡余现象的语用考察
16、 汉语表达中性别不对称现象
17、 手机短信的语用考察
18、 ╳ ╳ 的语法化过程 (从普通话、方言、普通话与方言比较等不同侧面入手均可。按，
实词意义经虚化而衍生出语法意义，表明从词汇领域跨越到了语法领域，这种现象就是典型意义的语法化现象，是语法化的狭义内容。广义地说，语法化还包括语法意义的再生现象，即词在虚义水平上的意义演变活动，一方面可以是由不太虚向更虚义变化，另一方面 ，演化前后的意义差不多处在同等虚灵的层次上，主要见于多义连词、语气词等。参见马清华《汉语语法化问题的研究》，语言研究2003年第2期)
篇三：语言学论文
(2011届)
Major:Class: No.: Name:Teacher:
二O一三 年 十二 月 十四 日
ABSTRACT
Complimenting is a kind of speech act that is highly and frequently used in human communication.Chinese and English have their rich compliments,but different language and culture make it different to use compliments.The paper makes a brief introduction of the definition of the compliments,illustrates how compliments may function and demonstrates the significance of the cross-cultural contrastive study of compliments.This paper covers the topic distribution,compliment form and compliment responses.It attempts to carry on a contrastive research on English compliments and Chinese compliments in order to find out the similarities and differences between them,then to analyze speech and social rules that govern them.At last,it comes to a conclusion that language and culture are inseparable.We can use tis kind of speech act more accurate only when we do master these two languages and their cultures.
Key Words:compliment;compliment form;topic distribution;compliment response;cultural difference
CONTENTS
Ⅰ Introduction
1.1 The definition and function of compliment
1.2 The purposes and significance of the study
ⅡLiterature Review
2.1 Compliment study abroad
2.2 Domestic study of compliments
Ⅲ Compliment Topics
3.1 Topic distribution
3.1.1 Appearances and possession
3.1.2 Ability and achievement
3.2 Comparison of topics between English and Chinese compliments
3.2.1 Similarities
3.2.2 Differences
Ⅳ Compliment Form
4.1 Syntactic form of English compliments
4.2 Syntactic form of Chinese compliments
4.3 Comparison of syntactic formulas between Chinese and English
Ⅴ The Response Strategies in compliments
5.1 Response strategies in English compliments
5.1.1 Acceptance
5.1.2 Non-acceptance
5.2 Comparison on response strategies between English and Chinese compliments Ⅵ Conclusion
References
Ⅰ.Introduction
1.1 The definition and function of compliment
Compliment,which is a expression of praise,admiration,approval(Oxford Dictionary,1997)is a speech act which happens with a high frequency in our daily lives.Holmes(1987)defined it as “a speech act which explicitly or implicitly attributes credit to someone other than the
speaker,usually the person addressed,for some ?good?(possession,characteristic,skill,etc.),which is positively valued by the speaker and the hearer.”There seems to be a widespread agreement over what constitutes a compliment.Owing to different cultural backgrounds,there are differences
existing in the compliments used in English and Chinese.Compliment usually regards the positive influences on interpersonal relationship as the purpose.Usually,it makes the hearer more cheerful to meet expectations through saying more words they love to hear.For example:
(1)Mrs. Wang,you have such a warm-hearted son
(2)你的歌唱的真好听！
A compliment has many functions.First of all,it is contributive to the relationship between people.It is just like a bridge that makes the transit procedure from saying hello to the first topic smoothly.Second,compliments encourage good behaves.For example,a teacher encourages a student?s lesson in order to encourage him or her to insist this good behave.Third,compliments can express people?s appreciation.When someone offers you a help,you can compliment him to express your gratefulness.Fourth,sometimes,people always compliment others to truckle to others in order to satisfy him or her.
All in all,people use compliments to carry out communication,to make communication smoothly,to strengthen affection express and people?s relationship.Compliment function is similar in different occasions.But in order to make positive influence on communication,it is different on when and how to use compliments in different cultures.
1.2 Purpose and significance of the study
Complimenting is a kind of speech act that is highly and frequently used in human
communication.They are usually intended to have a positive effect on interpersonal relationship.It is said to be a social lubricant to make communication frequent.As a social language,it can lessen the social distance between speakers and keep the normal relationship between
people.However,when communicating,the communicator should not only comply with speech rules,but also comply with social culture rules.Under the function of speech rule,social rule and communication,a compliment forms its special pattern.The paper makes a brief introduction of the definition of a compliment,illustrates how compliments may function and demonstrates the significance of the cross-cultural contrastive study of compliments.This paper covers the topic distribution,compliment form and compliment responses.It attempts to carry on a contrastive
research on English compliments and Chinese compliments in order to find out the similarities and differences between them,then to analyze speech and social rules that govern them.
ⅡLiterature Review
2.1 Compliment study abroad
Many early studies,such as Manes and Wolfson(1980) and Pomerantz(1978) about
compliments on speech acts hae generally been focused on the grammar of the utterance,and there has been very little systematic comparison of language from the point of view of speech act and rules of speaking.In the 1970s,some linguists(Pomerantz,1978;Wolfson,1981) began their study on Compliments from different aspects.Since 1980s,the studies of compliments have proceeded
extensively.In an early study,Manes and Wolfson discovered that no matter in basic syntactic and lexical choosing,the compliments are highly formula.Latter studies(Holmes,1987;Herbert,1990)strengthen and testify their findings. 2.2 Domestic study of compliments
Comparing with the study abroad the domestic study of compliments started rather late. Not until 1990s Chinese scholar Zou Weicheng1990 began his study on compliments. In the past few years Chinese scholars presented a few articles on compliments. However most of them simply introduced the findings on English compliments especially on compliments responses. Zou
Weichen 1990 introduced the structure of the compliment speech act and topic distribution. Guo Aixian 1998mainly discussed the principles that govern the act of responding to a compliment andthe factors that influence the response patterns and the general response patterns of English compliment which was also discussed in detail by Zhao Yingling 1998. LinFeng once gave a plenty of examples to study English and Chinese compliments LinFeng 2000. Wei Lichun
combined the compliment phenomenon in literary works such as novels and movies drama based on the speech act theory and politeness principle studied compliments and analyze the different cultural fact Wei Lichun2007. Zhou Hongxia made contrastive study in cross-cultural aspect to indicate the similarities and differences in two different cultural backgrounds Zhou Hongxia2008. There are fewer papers concerning the cross-cultural study on Chinese and English compliments exceptions include zuo Huanqi l 988 Shi Ning l 997. Zuo 3Huanqi made a brief comparison of the linguistic formulas the response formulas and the function between Chinese and English compliments while Shi Ning made across-cultural study with respect to the topic distribution the compliment form and the response pattern. However they only present general comparison
without statistical analysis and their studies are not comprehensive. As Shi Ning 1997 said there has been nobody who has made a systematic comparison between Chinese and English compliments.
This paper covered the topic distribution compliment form and compliment responses. It attempts to carry on a contrastive research on English compliments and Chinese compliments in order to find out the similarities and differences between them then to analyze speech and social rules that govern them.
III. Compliment Topics
3.1 Topic distribution
Compliments frequently refer to personal matters or aspects of character some of which may not be valued too much or even not noticed by the addressees themselves.Wolfson 1983 proposed that compliments fall into two major categories: those about appearance and those about ability. After analyzing the data that collected by previous scholars the Chinese compliment mainly focuses on ability and achievements while English compliment focuses mainly on appearances and possessions.
3.1.1 Appearances and possessions
Studies show that the majority of compliments fall into only on appearances and possessions. Manes 1983 found that the most compliments frequently occurring on personal appearance especially on addressing and hairing he also pointed out that deliberate personal appearance and new things are the most popular. Also it includesthe evaluation to their children and friends. For examples:
(1)Your Tshirt looks nice
